Tag Archives: cervical cancer

Do Lesbians Need Cervical Cancer Screening? What You Need to Know

Cervical Cancer & HPV, Prevention, , ,

Meg Seymour, PhD

Regular cervical cancer screening is an important way to prevent cervical cancer or detect it while it is still in the early stages and can be treated more easily.[1] Lesbians are less likely to get screened for cervical cancer than heterosexual and bisexual women, because many face barriers to accessing healthcare.[2] For example, they are less likely than heterosexual women to have a primary healthcare provider and are more likely to have negative experiences with healthcare providers, such as feeling discriminated against.[3,4] 

Another important reason why lesbians are not screened as often as other women is because many believe that they are less likely to get cervical cancer.[5] Some lesbians are erroneously told by their healthcare providers that they do not need cervical cancer screenings due to not having sex with men.[6] In fact, lesbians also develop cervical cancer and they have similar rates of cervical abnormalities to other women.[3] Cervical cancer screening is recommended for all women with a cervix, with no exceptions.[7] 

Can lesbians get cervical cancer?

Almost all cervical cancer is caused by human papillomavirus, commonly referred to as HPV.[8] HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI), and some strains of it can cause cancer.[9] HPV usually goes away by itself without causing any harm, but if it does not go away it can cause cancer. For more information about HPV and other STIs, you can read this article. (STIs are sometimes referred to as sexually transmitted diseases [STDs].)

Some lesbians believe the myth that HPV can only be transferred through men’s bodily fluids, so they falsely believe that they cannot get HPV or develop cervical cancer.[10] However, research has found that HPV can be transferred between women who are only having sex with other women[11]: through contact between genitals, oral contact with genitals, digital contact with genitals, and sharing sex toys.[12] The CDC notes that “the most reliable way to avoid transmission of STDs is to abstain from oral, vaginal, and anal sex or to be in a long-term, mutually monogamous relationship with a partner known to be uninfected.”[7] However, for those who are not interested in abstinence or who do not have a monogomous long-term partner, it is important to practice safe sex.[13] 

Additionally, many lesbians have had sex with men earlier in their lives, and they may have been infected with HPV from those male partners. It can take as much as 10-20 years for a woman to develop cervical cancer after she was first exposed to HPV,[14,15] Lesbians are able to contract HPV from either past sexual experiences with men or from current experiences with female sexual partners.  

Additional causes of cervical cancer

There is not conclusive research comparing the rate of cervical cancer among lesbians with the rate among other women. However, lesbians are more likely than heterosexual women to smoke, and smokers are twice as likely to get cervical cancer than non-smokers, because smoking makes it harder for the immune system to fight HPV.[14,16] If you are interested in information on how to quit smoking, you can read this article. 

Lesbians are also more likely than heterosexual women to have an imbalance of good and bad bacteria in the vagina that is called bacterial vaginosis[17], and researchers have found that HPV is more common among women who have bacterial vaginosis.[18] Bacterial vaginosis can sometimes lead to inflammation, causing health complications such as preterm birth or pelvic inflammatory disease. Bacterial vaginosis often does not cause any symptoms, but a common symptom is a “fishy” vaginal odor.[19]   

The bottom line

Lesbians should be sure to get the recommended cervical cancer screenings. Failure to have proper screening may delay a diagnosis of cervical cancer until the cancer has already progressed to a more advanced stage. This can lead to a greater likelihood of dying from the cancer.[20]

For more information on when women are recommended to get screenings, you can read this article. For information about HPV vaccines, you can read this article. 

 

All articles are reviewed and approved by Dr. Diana Zuckerman and other senior staff.

The National Center for Health Research is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research, education and advocacy organization that analyzes and explains the latest medical research and speaks out on policies and programs. We do not accept funding from pharmaceutical companies or medical device manufacturers. Find out how you can support us here.

 

References: 

 

  1.     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. What Should I Know About Screening? Cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/cervical/basic_info/screening.htm. Updated August 2019. 
  2.     Takemoto ML, Menezes MD, Polido CB, Santos DD, Leonello VM, Magalhães CG, Cirelli JF, Knobel R. Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and bacterial vaginosis among lesbian women: systematic review and recommendations to improve care. Cadernos de Saude Publica. 2019; 35:e00118118.
  3.     McNair RP. Lesbian health inequalities: a cultural minority issue for health professionals. Medical Journal of Australia. 2003; 178(12):643-5.
  4.     Tracy JK, Schluterman NH, Greenberg DR. Understanding cervical cancer screening among lesbians: a national survey. BMC Public Health. 2013 Dec 1;13(1):442.
  5.     British Broadcasting Corporation. Lesbian women cervical screening myth is ‘dangerous’. Bbc.com.  https://www.bbc.com/news/health-48802285#:~:text=The%20%22dangerous%20myth%22%20that%20gay,vast%20majority%20of%20cervical%20cancers.. 2019. 
  6.     Munson S, Cook C. Lesbian and bisexual women’s sexual healthcare experiences. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2016; 25(23-24):3497-510.
  7.     Workowski KA, Bolan GA. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports. 2015; 64(RR-03):1.
  8.     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cancers Associated with Human Papillomavirus (HPV). Cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/hpv/basic_info/cancers.htm#:~:text=Almost%20all%20cervical%20cancer%20is,cancer%20is%20caused%20by%20HPV. Updated November 2019. 
  9.     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Genital HPV Infection – Fact Sheet. Cdc. gov. https://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/stdfact-hpv.htm. Updated August 2019. 
  10. Curmi C, Peters K, Salamonson Y. Lesbians’ attitudes and practices of cervical cancer screening: a qualitative study. BMC Women’s Health. 2014; 14(1):2.
  11. Doull M, Wolowic J, Saewyc E, Rosario M, Prescott T, Ybarra ML. Why girls choose not to use barriers to prevent sexually transmitted infection during female-to-female sex. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2018; 62(4):411-6.
  12. Reiter PL, McRee AL. HPV infection among a population-based sample of sexual minority women from USA. Sexually Transmitted Infections. 2017; 93(1):25-31.
  13. McNair R. Risks and prevention of sexually transmissible infections among women who have sex with women. Sexual Health. 2005; 2(4):209-17.
  14. Waterman L, Voss J. HPV, cervical cancer risks, and barriers to care for lesbian women. The Nurse Practitioner. 2015 Jan 16;40(1):46-53.
  15. McGill University Division of Cancer Epidemiology. Facts about HPV. Mcgill.ca. https://www.mcgill.ca/hitchcohort/hpvfacts. 2020. 
  16. American Cancer Society. Risk Factors for Cervical Cancer. Cancer.org. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cervical-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html. Updated January 2020. 
  17. Evans AL, Scally AJ, Wellard SJ, Wilson JD. Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in lesbians and heterosexual women in a community setting. Sexually Transmitted Infections. 2007; 83(6):470-5.
  18. Liang Y, Chen M, Qin L, Wan B, Wang H. A meta-analysis of the relationship between vaginal microecology, human papillomavirus infection and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Infectious Agents and Cancer. 2019; 14(1):1-8.
  19. Mayo Clinic. Bacterial vaginosis. Mayoclinic.org. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bacterial-vaginosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20352279. Updated May 2019.
  20. JK, Lydecker AD, Ireland L. Barriers to cervical cancer screening among lesbians. Journal of Women’s Health. 2010 Feb 1;19(2):229-37.

Choosing wisely: tests and treatments cancer patients usually DON’T need

Medical Treatments with Cancer Risks, , , ,
By Jennifer Yttri, PhD
2013

The thought of cancer is so frightening that many patients depend on their physicians to make all the decisions about screening, prevention, and treatment.  Or they may ask for whatever “new cure” they have heard about.  That can result in too many tests or treatments that do more harm than good.  Not every test, procedure, or medication is appropriate for every patient, and many are over-used. What is beneficial for one person isn’t worth the risks for another.

The best health decisions can be made when physicians take the time to talk with their patients and patients ask questions rather than just assuming the doctor always knows best.

The ABIM Foundation and Consumer Reports collaborated with specialty medical societies to create lists of “5 Things Physicians and Patients Should Question” as part of a national effort called Choosing Wisely (www.choosingwisely.org). These medical groups represent more than 500,000 physicians. The lists contain evidence-based recommendations made by experts. Here is the list of their recommendations on cancer.

Breast cancer screening

Breast cancer screening is done through mammograms, which are like x-rays.  A breast cancer diagnosis involves giving the cancer a stage (0 through 4, with 4 being the most advanced) based on the size of the tumor, how advanced it is, and how likely it is to spread. Other imaging tests, like PET, CT, and bone scans are not recommended for screening early stage breast cancer (stages 0-3), patients newly diagnosed with Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS), or people without symptoms. This testing does not benefit patients, and false-positives (test results that indicate cancer when no cancer is present) can lead to unnecessary procedures and misdiagnosis. For anyone who has been treated for early-stage breast cancer and is symptom free, mammograms and regular clinical exams are the best ways to check that the cancer has not come back.  Advanced imaging tests and tumor marker tests should only be used for patients with later-stage breast cancer.

Cancer therapy

The first round of cancer therapy works best at reducing or eliminating a tumor. Multiple treatments, including chemotherapy, will not always help get rid of cancer, especially more advanced cancers or tumors that return. After three different treatments, another round is unlikely to improve quality or length of life. It is better to stop therapy and not suffer through the side effects of treatment.  (In fact, there is some evidence that patients live longer, with better quality of life, if they stop aggressive treatments earlier.)

Cervical cancer screening

Women over 65 should stop being screened for cervical cancer if they have not previously shown risk for disease. Women under 30 should not have HPV tests to screen for cervical cancer. Women with mild dysplasia or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN1) for less than two years should not be treated for cervical cancer, as CIN1 is usually caused by a short-term HPV infection and goes away within a year.   See below for information about HPV testing. Pap smears should be used to screen for cervical cancer.

Colon cancer screening

For people who are at an average risk for developing colon cancer, tests such as stool tests and sigmoidoscopy can be used instead of colonoscopy to screen for colon cancer. Abnormal results from these tests require follow-up with a colonoscopy. The plasma test named methylated Septin 9 (SEPT9) is an alternative screening test but it is not recommended unless the more conventional tests and colonoscopy are not feasible.

HPV testing

HPV testing is not recommended for low risk infections, such as for HPV associated with genital warts. HPV testing should be used to identify high risk infections in patients with abnormal Pap smears or other clinical symptoms associated with high risk HPV infections.

Ovarian cancer screening

Women at average risk who do not have symptoms should not be screened for ovarian cancer. Screening using ultrasound or blood serum testing might detect early signs of cancer, but ovarian cancer is uncommon in women of average risk without symptoms. An abnormal result that isn’t cancer might require invasive follow-up, and those risks outweigh the benefit of early detection.

Ovarian cysts

Small, simple cysts are common in women and usually won’t affect their health. If one is found, the doctor will schedule an ultrasound to determine if the cyst is benign (not cancer). If the cyst is not cancerous, a follow up ultrasound and surgery is not recommended unless the cyst causes symptoms, like pelvic pain. If the cyst is suspected to be cancerous, a follow up ultrasound is not recommended because the cyst should just be surgically removed.  A second ultrasound is only recommended for larger cysts that the doctor could not be sure about.

Palliative care for bone metastasis

Cancers that spread to bones are often very painful. Local radiation is sometimes used to treat patients with one or a few bone metastases, but some doctors question if the increased risk of cancer warrants radiation as treatment for pain. The American Society for Radiation Oncology recommends using one dose of radiation to relieve pain from any bone metastasis. While another dose might be needed in the future, starting with one dose makes sense, since patients with bone cancer have a short life expectancy.

Prostate cancer screening

Men who do not have symptoms generally should not be screened for prostate cancer using a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test or digital rectal exam as it can lead to treatments that may do more harm than good. Gleason and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) tests are used to measure how aggressive prostate cancer is and how likely it is to spread. Imaging tests can then be performed to identify exactly where cancer has spread. These imaging tests, such as bone scans, PET, and CT, are not recommended for detecting disease in men who are newly diagnosed with low-grade prostate cancer. Imaging tests are expensive, can expose men to high levels of radiation, and are unlikely to provide more information about early prostate cancer. Only men with Gleason scores above 7 and PSA levels above 10 nanograms/mL should consider imaging tests.

Prostate specific antigen (PSA)

High PSA levels may be a sign of prostate cancer. However, having a low PSA level does not prevent prostate cancer nor does it mean there is no cancer. It was thought that antibiotics might lower PSA and protect men from prostate cancer. This has not been proven in clinical tests and is not recommended as an alternative preventive therapy.

Stage 1 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)

Lung cancer is the most common type of cancer to spread to the brain. However, the chance of patients with Stage 1 lung cancer developing brain metastasis is very low. Because of the rate of false positives is much higher than the actual rate of brain metastasis, brain imaging by MRI or CT is not recommended for patients with stage 1 NSCLC unless they have neurologic symptoms.

Thyroid scans

Radioactive iodine is absorbed by the thyroid and can be used to give doctors a picture of what the thyroid looks like, how it is functioning, and if there are any nodules in the area. Imaging with radioactive iodine is not recommended for determining whether thyroid nodules are benign or cancerous unless the patient is hyperthyroid. Nodules should be biopsied if the thyroid functions normally.